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Kti
--> General Info Kti is a noun-based language, and 60-70% of the verbs are derived from nouns. Non-existent nouns are derived from avaivable words and rarely are new words formed. Setting Nothing to see for now, move on. Punctuation Punctuation is a set of rules governing how senteances should be written and include, but aren't limited to, commas, full stops, capital letters and such. Note that this punctuation is only limited to the latin representation. Capital Letter The capital letter, such as the 'T' at the beginning of this line, can be represented under these conditions: #At the start of a sentence. #As the first letter of a proper noun. #As the first letter of names. Punctuation Marks Punctuation marks are symbols which indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud. Kti punctuation includes the following: #Comma #Full stop #Brackets #Question and exclamation marks #Colon and semicolon Comma Comma is a sign for dividing certain parts of a phrase or senteance, and it is usually represented as a mild stop. In Kti, it is written when it seperates fused senteances ( I wrote this, I did! ), seperates appositions ( My mother, a trained nurse...,) and to seperate clauses ( Wherever I go, you go ), although the latter is archaic and almost unused except in formal documents. Legal uses of the comma: *Seperating fused senteances *Seperating appositions *Seperating depentent clauses from the main senteance (rare) Seperating fused senteances occurs when there are two or more predicates in a senteance, denoting two or more simpler senteances in a complex one. Take the following text as an example: 'I had written a column of text, and therefore am tired' and compare it to the English 'I had written a column of text and therefore am tired'. Seperating appositions is relatively easy: The senteance with no seperation is 'The teacher a doctor of neurology and PhD candidate told us that studying is hard' and the same with seperation: 'The teacher, a doctor of neurology and PhD candidate, told us that studying is hard'. Basically, the comma is only here for aesthetics, and no longer retains the clause seperation, as this is replaced by specific marking. Full Stop Full stop, a dot at comma-level, is most oftenly used to end a senteance, but other uses for it are found. It is used for: #Ending a senteance #Shortening words (etc.) Though, if these uses are removed, full stops would have no meaning whatsoever. Brackets Brackets are curved lines that are used to represent hidden or additional information (such as this), IPA as in ðis and mathematical groups such as {x, y, w}. They can be used to relay otherwise uninteresting or not that relevant information, but sometimes (as used before), to supply us with vital information, i.e. to make the info stand out. Question and Exclamation Marks These marks (! and ?) are used to modify the meaning of a senteance. Exclamation marks are used when you want to accentuate/increase the impact of the senteance (I will kill you!) or to signify emotions (Please!). Question marks turn the senteance into a question. Question marks, as well as exclamation marks, stand at the end of senteances. Phonology Kti Alphabet The Kti Latin alphabet contains the following letters: A,Sh,S,T,D,Z,Zh,H,O,N,M,K,U,Æ,R,I,E Single Letters Here single letters are introduced along with their IPA equivalents. Consonants *Extraordinarily rare, found only in a few placenames and in "Baki" Vowels *Appears only in diphthongs and triphthongs.**Long vowels are found in very few roots such as "Nāz" (water) and they can be traced back to "g".***It is found in free variation with the open-front "a" outside dipthongs. =Vowel Lenght = Outside of the rare double vowels, every vowel usually is in its standard IPA-based lenght, and two vowels next to one another can make diphthongs. Vowel length is doubled if conditions are met for the vowel: *If the vowel is back and next to a front, and either does not form a diph/triphthong or a V/C mix, it is doubled in length. *If the vowel is''' open-mid', and it ends a sentence, it is doubled in length. Diphthongs Diphthongs in Kti have priority over vowel-consonant mixes and triphthongs. Triphthongs Triphthongs in Kti have priority over vowel-consonant mixes. Vowel-Consonant Mixes Phonotactics The Glottal Stop (' ' ) resets syllable rules so after it a new syllable begins. Only one is allowed per word. ﻿﻿Grammar Word order Kti is a head-final, Verb-Object-Subject language, which means that the first major/important word is (usually) the verb, followed by an optional object, then a subject. If multiple objects exist, the proper object follows an improper one. In Kti, adjectives come before nouns and pronouns, proverbs before verbs and p/articles occur prior to the word they relate to. Pronouns Pronouns are declined according to case in the same method as nouns, with gender-coded changes. Plurals '''Clusitivity By standart definition, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive ''first-person pronouns and verbal morphology , also called ''inclusive "we" and exclusive "we". Inclusive "we" specifically includes the addressee (that is, one of the words for "we" means "you and I"), while exclusive "we" specifically excludes the addressee (that is, another word for "we" means "he/she, it and I, but not you"), regardless of who else may be involved. In Kti, there are multiple levels of sentient clusitivity, dependent on the fact how many others are there. There are three genders in Kti, which work together with four persons. | style="text-align: center"|'We' |- ! style="text-align: center"|'2nd Person' |Nide |Sheno |Tekon |Dineki | style="text-align: center"|'You' |- ! style="text-align: center"|'3rd Person' |Koran |Une |Zane/zhine |Menam/menem | style="text-align: center"|'They male/They female' |- ! style="text-align: center"|'4th Person' |Kaizha |Dakon |Shike |Ktan | style="text-align: center"|'That'× |} The fourth person is actually the third person obivate. Mechanoid Mechanoid pronouns are listed under a seperate section, as machines do not follow the classic rules of animacy. For the plural forms, it is enough to follow the noun gender rules. Simmilar rules as above apply. * Dead machines cannot talk, because if they could talk, they'd be alive. Objects of non-speaking/non-alive mechanoid nature are automatically sorted under dead, even though some objects take on genders that relate to the biological gender with which they are associated. Transition into new table Nouns Nouns are used to describe objects, beings, events and other things. Most languages have nouns, yet just under a sixth are derivational (a sixth of the world's languages make words out of new words). Declension In Kti, nouns have multiple grammatical categories. They are as follows: #'Animacy' #'Genders' #'Number' #'Cases' Animacy Kti has a complex animacy system, with several levels of animacy (how "alive" something is). Animacy is usually divided into the following categories: Dead: members of this group have been alive at an earlier point in time, but is no longer among the living. Inanimate: members of this group have never been alive, and due to that fact they cannot die. Critters: members of this group are unintelligent or semi-intelligent and alive, yet are less intelligent than the group below. Sentient: members of this grop are sentient, perhaps even sapient, and are capable of abstract thought, speech, logical thinking and reasoning. As with critters, they are alive, else they'd belong to the group of the dead. Declining nouns through animacy is somewhat different from other declensions, as it doesn't attach prefixes or suffixes, but it adds an infix before the last vowel. If the last vowel is at the very end of the word, the infix is before the vowel preceeding the last one. Note: these extensions are added to change the animacy of the noun. ×The 'æ' is dropped if it follows a vowel.'' '' ××It is excluded from diphthong creation. '' ''×××According to Kti, machines are sentient untill killed, and cannot be rendered inanimate. Gender There are three genders in Kti, masculine, feminine and mechanoid. Each gender differs from the other, logically. These are easily reckognisable, and the endings are used to mainly change genders than to reckognise genders. To check the gender watch for an -e, or a -æ at the end of the word, that relates to a basic female.* *The male form is the basic form, with no special ending ×This is lexical, not morphological. The gender extensions are added after others, at the end of the word. Number In Kti, a standard number system is used (singular/plural), and detecting/changing the number is rather simple: These extensions are added at the very end of the word, and have priority over everything else. Note that this only applies to the nominative, since cases have their own plural endings If the noun ends in a vowel or a diph/triphthong, the vowel or diph/triphthong is removed and the suffix added. Cases The case of a noun or pronoun is a change in form that indicates its grammatical function in a phrase, clause, or sentence. Cases usually indicate where is what according to what, the main senteance parts or grammatical roles, and the direction of movement. Kti has an extraordinary amount of cases (28 cases) and each case has singular, plural, mechanoid, feminine, and masculine forms, and there can be multiple forms per category depending on the word. Kti, being a nominative-accusative language, has the nominative as the basic case. In the following examples, I will use the word 'Akasha' (Mother Goddess) for the introduction to basic cases(Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Instrumental, Locative): The meanings of the examples are: '''Akasha is in nominative, and indicates the Mother Goddess. Akashina can mean something from Akasha (I took knowledge from Akasha), or is made of Akasha (I am made of Akasha, it means you have simmilar virtues as Akasha). Akashæm denotes movement of something to or towards Akasha (I am moving towards Akasha, means your death draws near and you will die in peace) or giving something to Akasha (I said my prayers to Akasha). Akasham usually marks Akasha as the direct object (I saw Akasha) Akashon 'denotes communication towards Akasha, calling Akasha ('Akasha, Mother Goddess, beginning of a prayer). Akashasem 'marks Akasha as an instrument ('With Akasha, using Akasha as an instrument to fulfill your goals), or as company (With Akasha, he passed over, here, somebody died). Akashasen '''marks Akasha as the topic of conversation (Talking '''about Akasha, does she really guide you over?). The reflexive form of Akasha, Akashanor, does not have a specific meaning without a verb attached to it. Of course, there are 20 more cases, and for ease of use, I will seperate them into two groups: Advanced Locational and Motional and Others. =Advanced Locational and Motional Cases = As you should have noticed, a basic case, Locative, has some properties of a pure Locational case, but also has a meaning of topic of conversation. This means that Locative isn't a pure locatioal case. An example of a pure locational and motional case would be the Ablative, being that it means moving away from something/someone. These cases differ from the basic because they can be ommited and nothing but the place will be lost. These cases are only used for expressing location, motion and manner of transportation. The following table depicts those cases using the noun ' Ka'man ' (Hexarch): Note that you wouldn't usually hear these words in general talk, since you can't move via a Hexarch. Ka'nem '''means '''inside a/the Hexarch, the object of talking must be inside the Hexarch. Ra'kama '''means '''between a/the Hexarch. Note that this is impossible, so a compound is made (Ra'kamaka'man,analysing the word we can get the following: Hexarch-INES Hexarch-NOM, and refers to a nominative 'between the Hexarch and the Hexarch' or 'gap between the two Hexarchs', while the word 'Ka'mara'kaman (Hexarch-NOM Hexarch-INES) refers to a location between the two specified Hexarchs). Ka'mener '''means '''below a/the Hexarch and usually refers to a particular rank below the top. In plural, it means that somebody got a highranking job just below that of the Hexarchy. Kamen means away/from from a/the Hexarch and usually refers to alienating, but can refer to running away from an attacker that is a Hexarch, but can also refer to an object from the specified Hexarch. Ka'min 'means '(on)to a/the Hexarch, and doesn't have much sense. Kamanæm means''' moving from (the top of) a/the Hexarch', and is hard to use the preceding phrase outside a nonsencial senteance. '''Ke'menem '''means '''out of a/the Hexarch', and can refer to a favour completed by the Hexarch. Ka'nam means into a/the Hexarch, and could possibly refer to an invasive surgery. Kanam '''roughly means '''to under a/the Hexarch, and probably has no potential use regarding the Hexarch. Ka'mæni '''means '''through a/the Hexarch, and could possibly indicate corruption of the Hexarch. Ia'kaman '''means '''along a/the Hexarch, and has no use regarding the Hexarch. =Other Cases = Cases that do not fit into the other two categories can be concidered a seperate group, 'Other Cases'. These cases usually convey some additional info, such as whose is what, who has what, who is astranged etc. These cases do not have a significant role to play in the senteance , but are used to make compounds and can overlap. The following example will demonstrate a mechanoid noun, 'Kauris' (meaning 'Power grid' ), declined through these cases, if needed mixed with nominative and other nessecary words: Kaurimitau means before the power grid, and often has a temporal role. Sometimes, it can indicate priority. Kaurizekai means without a/the power grid, lacking a/the power grid,' with no power grid' and shows the lack of something. Rarely, it indicates time (We were better off without the power grid). Denikauris means against the power grid and could possibly refer to raising charges, leading an attack/ a counterattack against the grid, protesting against, or even leaning against it. Kauri'kauraz means a/the power grid is/being a/the power grid, in this situation, it doesn't make much sense, but if used in a senteance such as 'He being a Hexarch' it would make sense. Kauri'kaurisen '''means '''a/the power grid (,) (being) equipped with/ decorated with/ (is) containing a/the power grid. This would make sence in a war setting. Kau'rem means foreign/alienated power grid. Kauraza 'means '-of a/the power grid, and in this context, the case conveys the info that something is a part of the power grid. It has a different meaning when applied to a senteance such as: 'Pantheon of Akasha'. Kauri'kauretina means a/the power grid, being a part of a/the power grid, and usually refers to vital parts, but it is not obligatory. Kaurosime means fearing/fear(s)/avoiding/avoid(s) the power grid, and demonstrates fear of the power grid. =Declining through Cases = As mentioned, the 27 Kti cases each have multiple declensions depending on their ending, containment of voiced/unvoiced fricatives, gender, animacy and others. The declensions are divided into three types: Masculine, Feminine and Mechanoid. Changes such as fricative de/voicing, vowel removal, vowel change come in some cases. The following tables depict masculine: |} Notes: '' ''*If in contact with a vowel, the vowel is removed and suffix attached as represented ²The vowel indicated in the brackets is added if the suffix doesn't have contact with a vowel ³The consonant in the brackets is added if the suffix is in contact with a vowel |} *Removes any vowels that might cause phonotactical troubles. |} Notes: *If in contact with a vowel, the vowel is removed and suffix attached as represented ²The vowel indicated in the brackets is added if the suffix doesn't have contact with a vowel ³The consonant in the brackets is added if the suffix is in contact with a vowel Note that due to the origins of the gender, not all categories are too different from either of the proper genders. =Syntactical Roles = The section of Case Syntactical Roles covers the use of cases to represent roles in syntax. The following is the list of cases and their common syntactical roles: #'Nominative '- Subject of verbs, rarely indirect object #'Genitive -' Origin, material, rarely indirect object #'Dative '- Direction, beneficiary, sometimes indirect object #'Accusative '- Direct object, dynamic location #'Vocative '- No distinct role, person to whom the talk is directed #'Instrumental '- Instrument or company #'Locative' - Either general static location or topic of conversation #'Reflexive '- Both the subject and either direct or indirect object, varies #'Intrative '- Inside of modified word #'Inessive '- Varies, generally the location between modified words, or between instances of word if plural #'Subessive' - Location below modified word #'Ablative '- Motion from or object recieved from the modified word #'Allative - '(On)to the modified word #'Delative' - Moving from (the top of) modified word #'Elative' - Out of modified word #'Illative '- Into the modified word #'Sublative '- To under the modified word #'Perlative - '''Through the modified word #'Prosecutive''' - Along the modified word #'Antessive '- Before the modified word #'Abessive '- Without the modified word, lacking the modified word #'Revertive' - Against the modified word #'Identical '- Marks the modified words as being the same #'Ornative '- Marks the part of the word as having the second, the second is marked #'Adventive' - Marks the word as foreign #'Possessive' - Marks the word as a possessor of some other word #'Partitive' - Marks the first part of the word as a vital segment of the second, the first is marked #'Anessive' - Marks the word as a receiver of despise or being feared or avoided by some other word Demonyms Demonyms most commonly refer to parts of a whole, or belonging to that whole. Note that it is seperate from the cases, such as the Possessive and the Partitive case. In English, they describe nationality (English, German, Russian, Israeli), language (German, Hebrew,' Chinese') among others. In Kti, there is one specific way to determin demonyms, look for the extension -arh (Oktarh, Ktarh,' Britarh', Deutscharh), but creating demonyms from nouns is far more difficult. There is no specific rule for making demonyms, and that makes expressing nationalities seperate from cases difficult. If you want to make them, you should read through some demonyms and try to 'feel' the rules which demonyms follow. Note that demonyms always are made from source nouns and are written as so in the latin alphabet, and if the phonology of the word doesn't fit into the Ktarh one, the nearest/most simmilar consonant/vowel is selected to fit. Verbs Verbs are words that describe action, the one who completes the action, time of completion and such. The verbs are divided into auxiliary and main verbs. Acting auxiliary '''verbs are used to provide further syntatic or semantic info to '''main verbs. Main 'verbs represent the main action and make up the main body count of verbs. Verbs in Kti are conjugated according to: #'Gender #'Tense' #'Number' #'Person' #'Voice' #'Mood' #'Aspect' Gender In this case, the gender of the verb relates to the object of the verb. The verb rarely agrees with the object's gender, and does so when the verb begins in the "s'(m)n-" consonant cluster. Even in those cases, such agreement is extraordinarily rare, and most oftenly used to point out the gender of the object. Such a verb is "s'mnaraiton" (speak some language), where you'd most likely say "S'mnaraitei Ktarhum ashah", but it also can be explicitly stated as "Is'mnaraitei Ktarham ashah". Such a thing is uncommon to say, though, since the language itself is not feminine. The following table demonstrates the effect: Tense Tenses represent the temporal value of the referenced actions. Tenses branch into simple and more complex. Simple '''tenses are the basic tenses, self-sufficient and needn't have acting auxiliary verbs. '''Complex tenses use simple tenses of acting auxiliary and main verbs to be formed, and usually represent actions with certain parts in more than one time. Among others, the most common tenses are simple present, past, and future '''tenses in Kti, each expressing their corresponding period, and there are tenses with multiple possible times (future/present for example) which, for example, describe an action which has started in the past and has finished at the time of utterance. Basic Tenses Basic tenses are tenses that are formed only via the infinitive, without other verbs to meddle in the process. These verbs contrast with Compex Tenses, and those are formed by combining various different things. =Present Simple = A verb in Present Simple describes an action which is happening now, at the time of utterance. The following table depicts the '''Present simple of the verb 'to be' (kin): Because 'kin' is irregular, the table doesn't apply to other verbs, but only to 'kin'. The rules governing Present Simple are different. Let's take the verb 'to love' (kuhiton) for example: In this example, the infinitive's main form is 'kuhiton'. The verb 'kuhiton' is equal to 'to love'. The ending -ton is discarded for singular. In this case, -iton is discarded for the plural form of Present Simple because if we remove only -ton, 'i' would remain. For plurals, the infix -aru- is added before the extensions, but after the root. At the end, new extensions are added: Using this table, you can see which endings you should use (or if you prefer, which suffixes should you attach) to the main word. Here are rules for Present Perfect: #'The ending -ton which marks the verb as an infinitive is removed and corresponding suffixes are added.' #'If by removal the vowels 'i' or 'æ' are exposed, they too are removed for the plural form.' #'The infix '-aru-' is added in between the ending and the original verb.' #'It is used for': ##'Describing action which is currently being preformed, without known duration.' ##'Describing the current state of being.' =Past Simple = The verb in Past Simple describes an action which happened already in the past and is not happening now. I will use 'kin' again to demonstrate an irregular declension: In the following example, I will use the regular verb "to speak (some language)" in the following example: There is a patern here, too: Here, too, there is an infix, but this time it is '-ma-' and is added at the same place as the one in Present Simple. Here are the rules governing Past Simple: #'The ending -ton which marks the verb as an infinitive is removed and corresponding suffixes are added.' #'If by removal the vowels 'i' or 'æ', or plosive consonants are exposed, they are removed as well.' #'The infix '-ma-' is added in between the ending and the original verb in the plural form.' #'Past Simple is used for:' ## Describing an action which happened in the past and is exclusive to it. ' ##'Describing the previous state of being. #'The action occured once and ended.' =Past Aorist = The Past Aorist, or the Aorist tense, is the tense which describes an action which has occured in the past, but we don't know if it ended, when it started, and the Past Aorist tense refers to a past action in the "pure and simple" way. There is no English equivalent to the Past Aorist tense. 'To be' (kin) is going to be used again as an irregular example: And here is an examle of the verb 'irineton' (to be infected with something): And here are the endings: In the plural form, 'i' is removed and an infix added as with the others. This time, the infix is '-ami-' Here are the Past Aorist rules: #'The ending -ton which marks the verb as an infinitive is removed and corresponding suffixes are added.' #'If by removal the vowels 'i' or 'æ', or plosive consonants are exposed, they are removed as well.' #'The infix '-ami-' is added in between the ending and the original verb.' #'Past Aorist is used for:' ## Describing an action in its pure form, without duration or completion. ' ##'Naming a past action. #'The action is in its pure, timeless form, therefore we don't know if it ended, how long it lasted etc. except that it had at least a part of itself in the past.' Complex Tenses Complex tense are formed via the basic verb forms. These tenses use acting auxiliary verbs in combination with the main verb. The complex tenses are the Pluperfect of Action'', Future Simple,''Present Periodic, Past Periodic '''and the '''Future Periodic. For the complex tenses, there are almost no exceptions such as irregular verbs because most verbs follow the tense's rules. If something cannot be expressed using tenses, that can be done with the mood, aspect or voice. =Pluperfect of Action = The Pluperfect of Action, or shortly the Pluperfect, refers to a distant past action ( as in English 'had thought' ) and the action has already been completed. All acting auxilary verbs have the prefix 'de-' added to them in the Present Simple to make the verb's Pluperfect of Action. For main verbs, you need to take the Aorist of the main verb and the Pluperfect of 'kin' (dekni, for example). The following table demonstrates 'shuneton' (to help) in the Pluperfect of Action: These are the rules governing the Pluperfect of Action: #'The Pluperfect form of 'kin' is taken and added prior to the Aorist of the main verb.' #'It represents a past action, further into the past than the Past Simple.' #'We know that the action ended some time in the past and lasted for a certain amount of time.' #'Auxiliary verbs, as in all the complex tenses, have a prefix (here being 'de-').' =Future Simple = Future Simple 'is the tense which represents an action that has yet to happen, and is going to last a certain amount of time before possibly finishing. Acting auxiliary verbs in Future Simple have the prefix 'ra-' added before their Present Simple form to make them future. This also applies to the verb 'to move' (nauton). The verb 'kin' in Future Simple: Turning a main verb into a future simple verb is easy: take the infinitive of the main verb and add 'kin' in the Future Simple before the main verb. Here are '''Future Simple '''rules: #'The Future Simple form of 'kin' is taken and is added prior to the infinitive of the main verb (the only exception is 'nauton'). #'It represents a future action that is yet to happen.' #'We predict or know that the action is going to begin and end in the future.' #'Auxiliary verbs, as in all the complex tenses, and the verb 'nauton' have a prefix (here being 'ra-').' =Past Periodic = Past Periodic is the tense that designates the verb as happening in the past, with intermediate brakes inbetween each occurance. An example would be "The wind blew", with the gusts of wind spread across the past. Technically, the Past Periodic and simmilar tenses are in fact tenses, since verbs are found in both perfective and imperfective aspects. Simply put, the pastt periodic is formed by adding an acting preposition, the permanently infinitive verb k'nazhiton (wanting/to want) prior to the verb in Past Aorist. The following example represents the Present Periodic form of the verb s'mnazheton(to continuously exterminate): Here are Past Periodic 'rules: #'The infinitive form of K'nazhiton is added prior to the verb. #'It represents a past action happening in temporally seperated occurances' #'We predict or know that the action happened in the past, with instances seperated by periods of time' =Present Periodic = Present Periodic is the tense that designates the verb as happening now, with intermediate brakes inbetween each occurance. An example would be "It rains", with rain not flooding in a continuous sheet, but in periodic, occasional drops. Technically, the Present Periodic and simmilar tenses are in fact tenses, since verbs are found in both perfective and imperfective aspects. Simply put, the present periodic is formed by adding an acting preposition, the permanently infinitive verb k'nazhiton (wanting/to want) prior to the verb in Present Simple. The following example represents the Present Periodic form of the verb suzoton (to drip): Here are Present Periodic 'rules: #'The infinitive form of K'nazhiton is added prior to the verb. #'It represents a present action happening in temporally seperated occurances' #'We predict or know that the action is happening in the present, with instances seperated by periods of time' =Future Periodic = Future Periodic is the tense that designates the verb as in the future, with intermediate brakes inbetween each occurance. An example would be "They will be falling", with the mentioned objects falling seperately. Technically, the Future Periodic and simmilar tenses are in fact tenses, since verbs are found in both perfective and imperfective aspects. Simply put, the future periodic is formed by adding an acting preposition, the permanently infinitive verb k'nazhiton (wanting/to want) prior to the verb in Future Simple. The following example represents the Future Periodic form of the verb hoton (to stop/stand up): Here are Future Periodic 'rules: #'The infinitive form of K'nazhiton is added prior to the verb. #'It represents a future action happening in temporally seperated occurances' #'We predict or know that the action will happen in the future, with instances seperated by periods of time' Voice In grammar, the voice (also called diathesis) of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the Active Voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the Passive Voice. The passive voice is further divided into the Dynamic and Static 'passives. 'Active and Passive Voices The Active Voice, being the default one (I love/kuhitei) has no markers to represent it. The Passive Voice, on the other hand, uses markers which change according to person. ='Static Passive' = The Static Passive '''voice represents an action which is done by the agent, not the subject, and the subject usually being the patient. 'The hunter is killed by the bear' is an example of that type of passive. The marker corresponding to the static passive is ' '''u'ru ' and it changes according to the person, but not number. It is added after the verb and it's declined according to the following pattern: The marker is added after the verb and modifies the preceding verb. ='Dynamic Passive' = The Dynamic Passive voice represents an action which is being completed by an unknown and irrelevant agent and the subject being usually the patient. 'The lawn is being mown' is an example of the Dynamic Passive. The marker corresponding to the dynamic passive is ' ara'ma ' and it also changes only according to person: The dynamic passive marker is added before the verb and modifies the following verb. 'Mediopassive Voice' The Mediopassive 'voice represents an action that "just happened by itself" and refers almost exclusively to negative actions. An example in English would be "The glass broke". The Mediopassive voice marks the subject (and object) in the '''Reflexive '''case and is reckognised by a reflexive agent. 'Mood Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. Moods vary in their usage and purpose. In English, the Imperative (I command you to eat! ) is substantially different from the Indicative (John ate 'apples), although this doesn't apply to all languages. Moods are divided into the Realis and '''Irrealis '''moods. 'Realis moods Realis moods are a category of grammatical moods that indicate that something is actually the case or actually not the case (Cats are fast, Mary didn't cry). Kti realis moods are the Indicative, Speculative, Generic, and the Implicative 'moods. ='Indicative = The Indicative mood designates an action that is or isn't the case. ='Generic' = The Generic '''mood describes an attribute of something. This can be shown in the senteance 'Cats are fast', where the verb 'to be' is in the Generic mood. Here, it too doesn't have a special verb form to represent the Generic. The pattern for the Generic mood follows: where the Patient can be 'Cats' and Attribute 'Fast', where 'To be' can be in any tense, voice, person etc. The example 'Cats are fast' would be transformed to 'Are fast cats'. Note: You can only take the active voice for the Generic. ='''Speculative = The Speculative 'mood describes an action that might be true, but may not be, too. It is formed by adding the following suffixes: 'Irrealis moods Irrealis moods are the opposite of realis moods, as in they don't indicate that something is or isn't the case. This can be represented in the following senteance: 'Go eat! ' where the verbs 'to eat' and 'to go' are in the imperative. Kti Irrealis moods are the Imperative, Conditional I, Conditional II, the Obligative and the Impositive moods. ='Imperative' = The Imperative mood indicates a command ( read! ) and it is usually used for giving commands to the second person, although you can say to yourself 'keep eating!', but in English, it would still be in the second person. You can form the Imperative by taking the present simple of the verb in the active voice, either the first or second person, then add the suffixes corresponding to the ending: If the verb root ends in the vowel '-i', add '-re', but if it ends in a consonant, add '-an'. ='Conditional I' = Conditional I, or as it is commonly written, the First Conditional, is one of two possible conditionals. The first conditional represents an action whose needs haven't been fulfilled ( Snails would be fast if they were to evolve jet engines and wings to lift off and fly away ). It is represented this way: O- => VERB => Ne => CONDITION(S) Here, 'O- ' is the prefix which denotes the first conditional, you probably know what 'VERB' is, 'Ne' is a special word just for the conditionals, and 'CONDITION(S)' come afterwards. If you have multiple conditions, you will need special rules to make a phrase which makes sense: CONDITION 1 => æt => CONDITION 2 => ...''ad infinitum'' The word 'æt' is a connector which links the conditions, it would roughly mean 'and', but has a much narrower meaning. ='Conditional II' = Conditional II, or as it is commonly written, the Second Conditional, is one of two possible conditionals. The second conditional represents an action whose needs have been fulfilled ( John ate because he was hungry ). It is repesented in the following manner: Ra- => VERB => Ne => CONDITION(S) Here, 'Ra- ' is the prefix which denotes the second, you should know what 'VERB' is, 'Ne' is a special word just for the conditionals, and 'CONDITION(S)' come afterwards. If you have multiple conditions, you will need special rules to make a phrase which makes sense, and these rules are shared with the first conditional. Technically, in both conditionals, you could remove the binding word, but it's not common. ='Obligative' = The Obligative 'mood expresses a notion simmilar to English "''ought to..." or "should...". There is no specific translation of obligative verbs. The '''Obligatives of verbs are formed by adding prefixes according to the following rules: ='Impositive' = The Impositive 'mood expresses something like English "''are supposed to..." or "be expected to...". The '''Impositives of verbs are formed by adding a marker after the word. The following pattern demonstrates the forms of the marker: Aspect The aspect describes a temporal flow of a verb, or a lack of the same. Aspect can be explained in English with the senteances 'I eat' and 'I am eating'. The first one is nonprogressive while the other is progressive. In Kti, the aspects are Perfective '''and Nonperfective. These aspects aren't usually distinguished on a morphological level, but the aspect is embedded into their meaning. Perfective Aspect The perfective aspect describes an action which cannot go on forever. In English, it would sound like: 'I finished eating'. To make a nonperfective verb perfective, suffixes can be added at the very end of the word. This can be shown in the following example: 'Kuhinirai' would roughly correspond to 'I loved but it's finished/but I do not love anymore'. The verb can be in any tense, any voice, mood or person to be changed. The suffixes are: '-rai' if the verb ends in a vowel, '-am' if the verb ends in a consonant, '-deku' if the verb contains a glottal stop and ends in a vowel, and '-iti' if the verb contains a glottal stop and ends in a consonant. Imperfective Aspect The imperfective aspect describes an action which can go on forever. In English, it would sound like: 'I am eating and I can continue eating indefinately'. It isn't possible to make a perfective verb imperfective, as that would sound like: 'I am going to sit down and sitting down will go on forever', but making imperfective verbs out of simmilar perfective verbs is described inside the section of derivation. Negation A verb can be turned into negative form simply by adding the word 'no' (den) prior to the verb. The following example demonstrates: ''Den okuhinem, ne serena, serenam would mean '''''I had not loved, and am probably still not loving peace/harmony, because of peace/harmony Here the senteance will be broken down: Den O-kuhi-nem, ne serena, seren-am No O-LOVE-PLUPERF condition-PEACE PEACE-ACC Extra The extras of Kti's verb system fit in here if they don't fit in other categories Formality Formalty, or politeness, changes the form of the verb. Formality and politeness are practically nonexistent in some languages, mild in some other (such as most Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages), and relatively well pronounced (such as Japanese or Korean). Interrogation Interrogation is the question form (I ate/Did I eat?) of the verb. Kti doesn't have a morphological or a semantical distinction, but a phonetical one. For example the senteance "Ashah kni"'' is not in the interrogative form, but "'Ashah kni?" is. The interrogative senteances have a rising tone that distinguishes them from statements. Gerunds Gerunds are essentially infinitve forms of the verb. There are quite a lot of those. Adjectives Adjectives always preceed the noun they modify, and due to syntactical rules, a whole noun phrase is considered one word. The adjective is unmarked for case, but only for gender, animacy and number. Adjectives are modified only via prefixes. There are 160 prefixes. Comparation Ktarh adjectives have orders of magnitude to describe how well defined an attribute the adjective bears is. This can range from the basic, unmodified form (red) to the most advanced (reddest). The levels are as listed in the following table: Negative Comparation Unlike most Earthly natural languages, Kti also contains a system of negative comparation that defines the noun lacking the root attribute. These levels are listed according to their magnitude of negativity, according to how unlike the root adjective they are. The following table shows the negative levels: *You might as well have been talking about blue Declining Adjectives The following tables contain all the prefixes for adjective declension: Compounding and Derivation Kti, being a language artificially kept in place, almost never tolerates new word formation, therefore to transmit information not formally possible with classical words, word synthesis and derivation are heavily relied upon. Derivation is used to form new words from old ones. The methods are divided into five categories, complexity ascending: '''Simple Compounding, Complex Compounding, Simple Derivation, Advanced Derivation and Inversion. Simple Compounding The method of simple compounding deals with one nominal word or a verb fused with non-nominal or non-verbial word. Sometimes, due to the nature of syllable structure, additional processes operate. The process of simple compounding deals primarily with choice of the two words. To understand the choice, one must understand the types of words: The only words not meant for simple compounding are conjuctions. All other words are eligible for every form of derivation. The only limiting factor in simple compounding is the limited choice of words. Even compounds of contradicting words can be brought together, as long as the product of their compounding makes some sense. If the second word's initial syllable contains two consonants that aren't in a cluster, and the first word ends in one consonant, the second word sheds the first consonant. If both words at the compounding border have a consonant, the last consonant of the first word dissapears. Complex Compounding Now here things get interesting. Complex compounding deals with making new words out of stock ones. This is the main wordbuilding process in the Ktarh language. As its name implies, it is far more complex than the other compounding system. In reality, there are no hyperbolically complex rules, but simple ones that are utilised only when phonotactics disallows a combination. Dictionary Example text Featured language banner Original text This language was once featured. Thanks to its level of quality, plausibility and usage capabilities, it has been voted as featured. Translated Text Dektai ara'nai sererem a nimani. seremai ne i'rim, æt s'narena, æt marinamineton, Dektai ara'nai mare serena ose. Breakdown in Kti de-ktai ara'nai sere-rem a nimani. Ra-sere-mai ne ivrim, æt s'narena, æt marinamineton, de-ktai ara'nai mare serene ose. Breakdown in English language be-PLUP-3PS DPASS.MARKER good-AOR BINDER distinguished-ADJ good-COND2-PAST BINDER quality and plausibility and potential, be-PLUP DPASS.MARKER select-ADJ good-ADJ-NONFEM 3RD.SNG.INANIM Translation to English This language was once distinguished. Due to its quality, plausibility and potential, it has been selected and featured. Literal Translation Language was good. Was good, distinguished, good, quality, plausibility, potential, was selected good it. History Of The Language Ktarh language went through significant changes through its history to be frozen in the modernmost form. The history of the language can be analised to have seven stages: Pre-Written Ktaric, Ancient Ktaric, Old Ktaric (also known as De'ni), Classical Ktaric (oldest strictly Ktarh form), Collapsed Ktarh (named due to a collapse from 48 to 11 consonants), Classical Ktarh and the S'mnaria Ktarherarh / Modern Ktarh (the first is the native name, translatable to "Ktarh Speech"). Category:Languages Category:Kti